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India is the second most populous country in the world. The cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day. To meet the food, fibre, fuel, fodder, and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land has necessarily to be increased. It requires increased use of agricultural inputs like quality seeds, fertilizers, water, agro-chemicals, etc, in such a manner that do not create any environmental problems.

The objective of this brochure is to create awareness among all concerned by providing information on basic elements of technically sound, economically attractive, environmentally safe, practically feasible and socially acceptable management practices for ensuring sustainable and high agricultural productivity.

The important components of best agricultural practices are comprised of:

• selection of quality seed of high yielding variety
• best time and appropriate method of sowing with optimum seed rate and plant population
• choice of fertilizers, their doses, method and time of application
• appropriate measures against possible insect pests and diseases
• intercultural operation and weed control
• provision of irrigation and drainage
• adoption of appropriate management practices, keeping in view the agro-ecological situations as well as the socio-economic conditions of farmers.

Among the different agricultural practices required for good crop production, the use of the fertilizers together with quality seeds and water are the most important.

Quality seed

Use of high quality seeds improves potential response to fertilizer, water, and other inputs and thereby increases crop production significantly. At present, a considerable gap exists between the yields obtained from the use of quality seeds and poor-quality seeds in farmers' fields.

Lack of use of quality seeds by farmers is one of the biggest production constraints.

The following are the characteristics of good quality seeds:

- high in germination and vigour
- uniform: genetically and physically
- free from seed borne diseases
- free from insect damage
- free from weed seeds

At the farmers level, visual observations under a magnifying glass, sieving, washing tests, germination tests, etc, can be performed to ensure that the seed selected for sowing is free from weed seeds, pests and has a high germination potential.

It is imperative to assure the availability of quality seeds to farmers at a reasonable price which is possible only through the larger farmers' participation in seed production programmes.

Soil

Soil is one of the important resources for crop production. Keeping soil in good health is a pre-requisite for sustainable crop production development. Use of marginal or fragile land which results in land degradation and associated environmental problems should be assisted to sustain agricultural production.

Water

Water is a critical input in crop production. Quality of irrigation water has deteriorated over recent years due to direct disposal of sewage sludge, city waste, industrial waste, etc. to surface water bodies. India receives sufficient rainwater to meet her water needs for different sectors including agriculture. However, due to poor water management much is wasted. As a result, so far, only 30% of agricultural lands have assured irrigation facilities and the rest are rainfed. Thus, water is not only a limiting factor in crop production but its poor quality and mismanagement are matters of serious concern.

Soil and Water Management

Efficient soil and water management are essential to sustain agricultural production.

In general, there are two broad soil and water management practices - one is agronomic and the other is mechanical.

Agronomic practices for soil and water conservation help to intercept rain water and reduce the splash effect, helping to obtain a better intake of water by the soil and by improving the organic matter content and soil structure. It also helps to prevent runoff through the use of:

1. Contour cultivation
2. Mulching
3. Dense growing crops
4. Strip farming
5. Mixed farming

Mechanical measures also play an important role in controlling erosion on agricultural land. They are adopted to supplement the agronomic practices when the latter alone are not adequately effective. These measures include:

1. Basin listing
2. Sub-soiling
3. Contour bunding
4. Graded bunding
5. Bench terracing on steep slopes

In future, more gains are expected from exploiting rainwater, and improving water use efficiency than from extending irrigation to newer areas at high cost and also the fact that 50 per cent of the cultivated area will remain rainfed. Experience has often shown of the poor economic returns from major irrigation projects and negative effects on the environment resulting in soil degradation, water-logging and salinisation in many canal command areas. Keeping these in view, the following actions are important:

- Develop watersheds in rainfed dryland areas

- Use irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, etc. to make efficient use of water and also to conserve soil from erosion and nutrient loss in high valued crops.

- Use gypsum and pyrite in alkaline soils and lime in acidic soils to increase productivity.

- Select the appropriate cropping system as per agro-ecological situations.

- Keep soil always under vegetative cover.

In fact, it is the combination of all these that would ensure best results with minimum soil degradation.

Nutrient Needs of Crops

Sixteen essential elements are required by the crops. The amount and relative proportion of these nutrients will depend on a number of factors. The most important factors are:

(i) nutrient status of soil and
(ii) nutrient requirement of the crop.

The nutrient status can be found out through soil testing while the nutrient requirements of crops will mainly depend on the desired yield level. The difference between nutrient uptake by crop and nutrient available in soil will determine the fertilizer recommendation. However, while making fertilizer recommendations, the nutrient use efficiency factor must be accounted for. General recommendations (NPK) for some important high yielding crops are given in Table 1.

Table 1: General nutrient recommendation for some important crops

Fertilizers

The large scale use of fertilizers in India started in the late 1960s, after the introduction of high yielding varieties which pioneered the "Green Revolution". The important fertilizers currently being used are: urea, diammonium phosphate, single superphosphate and muriate of potash. These fertilizers supply mainly NPK, whereas the requirement of other essential nutrients are largely met only from soil and to some extent from organic manures. Currently, about 16 million tonnes of N, P₂O₅ and K₂O are being used annually as fertilizers which corresponds to an average NPK use of 87 kg/ha.

Considering the level of crop production during 1996-97 in India, the annual nutrient removal from soil is about 26 million tonnes, whereas supply from chemical fertilizers is around 14 million tonnes thus leaving a gap of about 12 mt.

Bio fertilizers

Bio fertilizers (BF) (microbial inoculants) are the products containing living cells of different types of micro organisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, etc.) which have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and mobilize phosphorus in the soil from unavailable form to plant usable form.

At present, the annual production of all kinds of biofertilizers is estimated at around 7000 tonnes from nearly 70 units and expected consumption is approximately 6000 tonnes. Central Government provides some financial assistance for setting up biofertilizer units.

Use of Rhizobium culture in legumes is most promising among different kinds of biofertilizers. On average, its use can supply 15-20 kg N/ha to legumes and increase yield up to 20 per cent.

Biofertilisers have to be properly applied to the seed or soil to produce the desired benefit. For this purpose, appropriate guidelines for each kind of biofertilizers are available. For example, guidelines for Rhizobium biofertilizers use are:

- prepare the slurry of required quantity of inoculant in sufficient water (generally 400-500 ml of water is enough for 200 g of inoculum).

- pour this slurry over the seeds to be treated
- mix seeds with inoculum slurry by hand
- dry seeds in shade on a plastic sheet
- sow the seeds immediately

Precautions in biofertilizer use

• buy the right type and good quality biofertilizer from a reputable source and use it before the expiry date
• use only specific Rhizobium meant for a particular legume crop
• always treat the seeds in shade
• do not expose the treated seed to sun
• treat seeds just before sowing
• do not mix any chemical fertilizer and pesticides directly with biofertilizers
• sowing during the hot period should be avoided
• there should be 24 hours gap between the seed treatment with fungicide and biofertilizer treatment to avoid any harmful effect of agrochemicals on biofertilizers.

Similarly, the application of guidelines for other kinds of biofertilizers have to be followed for maximum gains from their use.

Performance of biofertilizers is highly unpredictable due to their biological nature and susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses. There is a need to develop more effective, competitive and stress tolerant strains to increase nutrient supply from biofertilizers. Use of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and Vasicular Arbuscular Mycorrhyzae (VAM) to supply phosphorus and micro nutrients show future potential.

Organic Manure

The use of organic manure is as old as farming. Before the introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of crops, organic manures were the main nutrient sources in agriculture. The use of organic manures not only provides plant nutrients but also improves soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Long term fertilizer experiments in India have clearly demonstrated that, in addition to fertilizers, the use or organic manure is essential for sustaining crop productivity.

Despite the increased cattle production in recent years, the availability of organic manure has not increased substantially. A present, on average, about 2 tonnes/ha of organic manure is being used annually which is far below the general recommendation of 10-20 t/ha.

Alternative use of cattle dung as fuel is the major constraint in increasing availability of organic manures in India. Organic manures vary in nutrient content and have high costs of transportation and application. Also low, imbalanced and inconsistent nutrient content are the other constraints to its promotion.

The plant nutrient supply from use or organic manure can be increased by developing biogas plants and agro-forestry for providing alternative sources of fuel to the villagers, the addition of crop residues, recycling of city and urban wastes and adding nutrient value through proper composting.

Guidelines for preparation of good quality manure and its application

- Dig a pit of 3 m length, 2 m wide and 1 m deep.

- Provide a roof over the pit to protect it from rain and sun.

- Use dung, urine and other raw materials to fill the pit. Efforts should be made to collect urine as much as possible by using absorbent material such as straw, loose soil, litter, etc. in the cattle shed.

- Fill the mixture of dung, urine and other materials layer by layer and moistening it each time.

- Add suitable inoculum to hasten the rate of decomposition of manure.

- Enrich the mixture with 100 kg of rock phosphate/bone meal/single superphosphate to improve the nutrient content of manure.

- Seal the pit with mud plaster after it is filled.

- The manure will be ready for use after 4-6 months.

- It should be applied 2 to 3 weeks before the sowing of the crop. It should be evenly spread and mixed with the soil.

Vermi-Compost

Vermi-composting uses earthworms to produce compost from organic residues. Earthworms can practically eat all kinds of organic matter. The following are the guidelines for preparing a good quality vermi-compost.

- Dig a pit of 4 m length, 3 m wide and 1 m deep.

- Lay bamboo poles at the bottom and cover it with wood strips.

- Fill the pit with materials to be composed and keep it moist.

- After about 1 week, add water to one or two places on the soil cover and place earthworms on the wet spots.

- Leave the compost pit for 2 months undisturbed and protect pit from sun and rain.

- Excavate the pit after 2 months and remove the worms by hand and apply the compost to the field.

Biogas Technology

In India, cattle dung is used for making farmyard manure and compost or as fuel for cooking. However, use of biogas technology offers twin benefits to the farmers. On the one hand, it supplies fuel (biogas) for cooking and on the other it gives better manure (biogas slurry) compost. Efforts should be made that all cattle dung goes to the agricultural field passing through this route.

Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM)

It aims at maintaining soil fertility and plant nutrient supply for sustainable crop productivity by adjusting chemical fertilizer, organic manure, biofertilizer and crop residues. Different proportions of these components are to be used based upon crop requirements and availability of materials.

The cropping system rather than the individual crop and the farming system rather than the individual field are the focus of this approach for developing IPNM systems for major agro-ecological zones and for various categories of farms.

IPNM for rice-wheat systems, which are very popular in the Indo-Gangetic plains of the country, is outlined here:

Rice

A. Where green manuring is feasible before rice crop:

- Grow green manure crop for 7-8 weeks by adding 30 kg P₂O₅ and also using suitable biofertilizer.

- Plough down the standing crop into the soil thoroughly.

- Provide a gap of 1-2 weeks between incorporation of green manure and transplanting of rice.

- Apply a basal dose of 30 kg P₂O₅, 50 kg K₂O and 25 kg ZnSO₄/ha.

- Add suitable blue green algae (BGA) strains.

- Top dress the nitrogen in two equal splits of 30 kg/ha after 1 and 2 months of transplanting.

B. Where green manuring is not feasible:

1. Apply 10 t FYM/ha after initial land preparation but about 2 to 3 weeks before transplanting rice.

2. Add suitable BGA strains as per recommendation.

3. Add 25 kg P₂O_5, 30 kg K₂O as basal dose at transplanting.

4. Add 30 kg S/ha and 25 kg ZnSO₄ at basal dose in sulphur and zinc deficient soils, respectively.

5. Add 20 kg N at 10 days after transplanting (DAT), 20 kg N at 40 DAT and 20 kg N at PI stage.

Wheat

- Apply organic manure 5-10 t/ha

- Use suitable biofertilizer

- Add 50 kg N, 60 kg P₂O₅ and 60 kg K₂O/ha as basal

- Add 50 kg nitrogen in two equal splits after 1 or 2 months of sowing.

In spite of the known benefits of IPNM, it has not made much headway because of the problems associated with the use of organic manure and biofertilizer as pointed out earlier.

Integrated farming system approaches involving a blend of crops, animals, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping, sericulture, agro-forestry, agro-horticulture and silvi-pasture systems can help to a great extent in adoption of IPNM.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Control of pests and diseases in agriculture is very important. Earlier approaches of insecticides applications to contain pests is no longer desirable because of their increasing costs and the adverse effects on the environment. Therefore, the concept of IPM all over the world has assumed great importance.

IPM is not clearly defined. The chemical and biological pesticides to be employed in the IPM system must be compatible with one another and also with other components. Different components of IPM are:

• Use of resistant or tolerant varieties to one or more pests.
• Cultural/agronomic practices like timely sowing/planting, wide spacing judicious fertilizer management, crop rotation, nutrition and water management, summer ploughing and weed removal.
• Pest surveillance and monitoring by use of pheromone and light trap
• Biological control by Bacillus thuringensis (Bt), NPV, entomofungus, parasites and predators
• Natural pesticides
• The need-based judicious use of insecticides based on economic threshold levels.

Integrated Weed Management

Weed control should be integrated with measures that protect crops from insects, pests and diseases.

Since weeds are the alternate hosts to various pests and diseases, their control helps in minimizing competition from pests. The yield loss due to unchecked weed competition is very high. Weed competition is minimized by integrated weed management systems. The following practices are considered important in devising integrated weed management in rice fields.

- Plough the land in direct seeded uplands and lowlands instead of keeping the land fallow during off-season.

- Stale seedbed is useful in uplands for minimizing overall weed competition.

- Grow semi-tall weed smothering varieties.

- Use higher seed rate in direct seeded uplands and lowlands.

- Use moderate and split fertilizer N doses. Apply fertilizer only after weeding.

- Use pre-emergence herbicide.

Tips for Efficient Use of Plant Nutrients

The steps (package of practices) outlined below contribute to enhancing overall efficiency of applied fertilizers through maximizing agricultural production from every unit of nutrient used.

1. Select the most responsive crops and their high yielding varieties best suited for the locality.
2. Sow/plant the crops at normal time suited for the locality to get the maximum benefit from applied fertilizers.
3. Maintain proper plant spacing. For example, follow 15 cm x 10 cm spacings for Kharif rice and 10 cm x 10 cm for Rabi rice.
4. Conserve all organic waste materials on the farm and incorporate them 3 to 4 weeks before sowing of the crop to build soil fertility, water holding capacity and to supply micronutrients. Apply farmyard manure in the Kharif season for more benefits.
5. Add a small quantity of nitrogenous fertilizers to compost if its is made from straw and dry leaves. It helps when a crop is sown within a short time of compost application.
6. Raise leguminous crops in diverse rotational and intercropping systems and use bacterial and algal cultures which helps to fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and also utilizes phosphorus which is otherwise not available.
7. Control irrigation rate by using just enough water at different crop growth stages. Ensure that there is no excess water in the soil at the time of fertilizer applications and immediately thereafter.
8. Apply fertilizer phosphate in dry (Rabi) season particularly where a rice-wheat cropping system is followed.
9. Practice balanced fertilisation based on the soil test. Follow fertilizer recommendations based on cropping systems where multiple cropping is practiced and not on individual crop basis.
10. Apply part or all of the potash as a basal dressing, nitrogen in 2 or 3 split doses keeping in view the duration, crop needs and soil moisture availability. Place urea 5 cm deep for basal application with the help of seed-cum-fertilizer drill.
11. Mix one part of urea with 5-10 parts of moist soil thoroughly and keep it for about 24 hours and top-dress it to save nitrogen losses in rice.
12. Place phosphate 2.5-5 cm below and 5-6 cm away from the seeds to ensure maximum availability to the crop for which it is applied. Place potash either along with phosphate or broadcast and mixed with the soil. In dry soil, place fertilizers only in the moist zone. Top-dressed nitrogen and potash fertilizers should preferably be mixed with the top layer of soil.
13. Under adverse soil and climatic conditions, foliar application of fertilizers along with insecticides and pesticides (if needed) will lead to higher utilization efficiency by plants;
14. Apply 20-25 kg of zinc sulphate per hectare as basal application in zinc deficient areas.
15. Use appropriate amendments e.g. lime (for acidic soils), gypsum (for alkaline soils), etc., before using fertilizers.
16. Control weeds at early stages of crop growth to save 25-30 per cent of plant nutrients applied to crops.
17. Control pests and diseases to realize maximum benefit from fertilizer application.